Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires

Introduction

The term "nomadic empires" might seem contradictory, as nomads are traditionally associated with wandering, family-based structures, and rudimentary political organization, while empires imply stability, complex societies, and extensive territorial governance. However, historical study reveals that nomadic groups have indeed formed formidable empires. This chapter focuses on the Mongols of Central Asia, who, under Genghis Khan, created a vast transcontinental empire spanning Europe and Asia in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. While their initial social and economic structures might have seemed less complex than those of agrarian societies like China, Mongol societies were not isolated and significantly interacted with and influenced the wider world. The chapter examines how the Mongols adapted their traditions to create a powerful military and governance system, ruling over diverse populations and cultures. This process involved innovation and compromise, ultimately transforming both the empire and Mongol society.

Our understanding of nomadic societies, including the Mongols, largely relies on chronicles, travelogues, and documents produced by city-based literati. These sources often contain biased and ignorant portrayals of nomadic life. However, the Mongols' imperial success attracted many foreign scholars and travelers who produced more sympathetic accounts, challenging the negative stereotypes of steppe marauders. Research on the Mongols, particularly by Russian scholars, has provided valuable insights, although influenced by colonial and Marxist perspectives. The vast geographical span of the Mongol empire necessitates the study of sources in numerous languages, often with differing contents, making the task of understanding Mongol history complex and requiring expertise in philology.

The Mongols and Genghis Khan

The Mongols, originating from the steppes of Central Asia, united under Genghis Khan in the early thirteenth century. Genghis Khan, driven by a divine mandate to rule the world, united Mongol tribes and initiated campaigns that laid the foundation for the largest empire in history. His vision and military innovations transformed steppe combat into a formidable force that impacted China, the Middle East, and Europe.

Sources for Mongol History

Knowledge of the Mongols comes primarily from accounts written by non-Mongol literati, which are often biased. However, the Mongol empire's success attracted many foreign scholars and travelers who produced more sympathetic and detailed accounts. The vast geographical spread of the empire necessitates examining sources in multiple languages, including Chinese, Mongolian, Persian, Arabic, and various European languages, often requiring philological analysis to understand Mongol usage.

Social and Political Background

The Mongols were a diverse group of people connected by language, sharing similarities with Tatars, Khitans, Manchus, and Turkic tribes. They inhabited the steppes of Central Asia, a region characterized by extreme temperatures, limited agriculture, and a lack of cities. Most Mongols were pastoralists, herding horses, sheep, cattle, goats, and camels, living in tents (gers) and migrating seasonally for pasture. Some were hunter-gatherers in the Siberian forests, trading furs. Mongol society was organized into patrilineal lineages, with richer families possessing more resources and followers, influencing local politics. Periodic natural calamities like harsh winters or droughts led to conflicts over pasture and raids for livestock. While family alliances formed for defense, these confederacies were often small and short-lived, unlike the durable political system established by Genghis Khan.

Despite differences in social and political organization between nomadic and agrarian societies, they were not entirely foreign to each other. The Mongols engaged in trade with their sedentary neighbors in China, exchanging horses, furs, and game for agricultural produce and iron utensils. This relationship, however, was often marked by conflict, with nomads using military pressure to enhance profits and plunder. China, suffering from frequent nomad intrusions, built fortifications like the Great Wall to protect itself. The Mongol empire, unlike earlier confederacies, was stable enough to administer complex agrarian economies and urban settlements, despite their nomadic origins.

The Mongols: Who Were They?

The Mongols were a diverse people united by language, primarily pastoralists and hunter-gatherers inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia. They lived in tents (gers), migrating seasonally, and their society was structured around patrilineal lineages.

Nomadic vs. Agrarian Societies

While nomadic and agrarian societies differed significantly in their social and political organizations, they were interconnected through trade and conflict. Scarcity of resources in the steppes drove nomadic interaction with sedentary neighbors like China, leading to both mutually beneficial exchanges and tensions.

Interactions with China

The Mongols had a complex relationship with China, characterized by trade and conflict. Agricultural produce and iron goods from China were exchanged for horses and furs from the steppes. However, nomadic groups often used military pressure to gain advantages, and Chinese regimes built fortifications like the Great Wall to defend against raids.

The Career Of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan, born Temujin around 1162, rose from humble beginnings. His father, a chieftain, was murdered when Temujin was young, and his mother, Oelun-eke, raised him and his siblings in hardship. Temujin faced numerous reversals, including capture and enslavement, and the kidnapping of his wife, Borte, whom he fought to recover. During these challenging years, he formed crucial alliances, notably with Boghurchu and his blood-brother Jamuqa, and later re-established ties with Ong Khan of the Kereyits. Through the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin used his alliance with Ong Khan to defeat rivals like Jamuqa. Following these victories, he defeated the Tatars, Kereyits, and Naimans, culminating in his proclamation as Genghis Khan ("Universal Ruler") at a Mongol chieftains' assembly (quriltai) in 1206. Before this, he had reorganized the Mongols into a disciplined military force, laying the groundwork for future campaigns.

Genghis Khan's initial focus was the conquest of China, then divided into three realms: the Hsi Hsia, the Jurchen Chin dynasty, and the Sung dynasty. By 1209, the Hsi Hsia were defeated, and by 1215, Peking was sacked. His campaigns extended to Transoxiana and Khwarazm after defeating the Qara Khita in 1218. Sultan Muhammad of Khwarazm's execution of Mongol envoys provoked Genghis Khan's wrath, leading to devastating campaigns against major cities between 1219 and 1221. Towns that resisted were destroyed, with a chilling command to annihilate all life as vengeance. Mongol forces pursued Sultan Muhammad's son into Afghanistan and Sindh. Genghis Khan died in 1227, leaving behind an astounding military legacy built on innovation and the transformation of steppe combat into highly effective military strategies, including rapid cavalry maneuvers, winter campaigns, and the adept use of siege engines.

Early Life and Struggles

Born Temujin around 1162, Genghis Khan endured a difficult childhood marked by his father's murder, enslavement, and the kidnapping of his wife. These hardships forged his resilience and ability to form critical alliances.

Formation of Alliances

Temujin formed strategic alliances with individuals like Boghurchu and Jamuqa (his blood-brother), and restored ties with Ong Khan of the Kereyits. These alliances were crucial for his rise to power and his subsequent military victories.

Unification of the Mongols

Through a series of military campaigns and strategic maneuvers, Temujin defeated rival tribes and leaders, culminating in his proclamation as Genghis Khan ("Universal Ruler") at the quriltai in 1206, unifying the Mongol people.

Military Campaigns and Conquests

Genghis Khan led campaigns against China, Transoxiana, Khwarazm, and various other regions. His military success was attributed to innovations in steppe combat, including cavalry speed, archery skills, winter warfare, and the effective use of siege engines and portable equipment.

Legacy of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan's legacy includes the unification of the Mongol people, the creation of a formidable military machine, and the establishment of the foundation for the largest contiguous empire in history. Despite a reputation as a destroyer, he is also remembered as a leader who brought prosperity and restored trade routes, fostering a unique transcontinental empire.

The Mongols after Genghis Khan

The Mongol expansion continued after Genghis Khan's death in 1227, divided into two main phases. The first phase (1236-42) saw campaigns in the Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland, and Hungary. The second phase (1255-1300) led to the conquest of China, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. However, Mongol expansion in the West faltered after the 1260s due to internal succession struggles and the increasing marginalization of the Jochi and Ogodei lineages by the Toluyid branch. While campaigns continued in Iran under Mongke, resources were increasingly diverted to China, weakening the Mongol forces against the Egyptians. The ensuing conflicts between the Jochids and Toluyids also diverted the Jochids from further European campaigns. In contrast, Mongol campaigns in China continued, leading to the reunification of the empire under the Mongols. Despite these successes, internal turbulence emerged within the ruling family, leading to the eventual fragmentation of the Mongol realm into individual dynasties.

Phases of Mongol Expansion

Mongol expansion occurred in distinct phases: the first (1236-42) focused on Eastern Europe and Russia, while the second (1255-1300) encompassed China, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The momentum of western expansion slowed after the 1260s due to internal factors.

Internal Turbulence and Fragmentation

After Genghis Khan's death, succession struggles among his descendants led to conflicts and the eventual fragmentation of the empire. The Toluyid branch gained prominence, focusing on campaigns in China, while the Jochi and Ogodei lineages were marginalized.

Challenges to Mongol Dominance

The retreat from Hungary and defeat by Egyptian forces in the West signaled new political trends. Internal succession disputes, the division of the empire into separate lineages (ulus), and the growing focus on China by the Toluyids contributed to the suspension of western expansion and the eventual weakening of central authority.

Social, Political and Military Organisation

Mongol society, like many nomadic groups, organized its able-bodied adult males into armed forces. Genghis Khan systematically restructured this system, replacing old tribal identities with new military units based on decimal organization (10s, 100s, 1,000s, 10,000s). He dispersed members of old clans and tribes into these new units, assigning them to different commanders (noyans) and his four sons, who governed distinct territorial divisions (ulus). This created a new hierarchy where status was derived from proximity to the Great Khan, superseding traditional clan leadership. A rapid courier system (yam) was established using strategically placed outposts and a tax (qubcur) levied on herds for maintenance, facilitating communication across the vast empire. The conquered peoples, however, often felt little connection to their nomadic rulers, and the campaigns resulted in widespread destruction, enslavement, and ecological devastation. Despite this, the establishment of the Mongol empire, known as the Pax Mongolica, fostered increased trade and communication along the Silk Route, with travelers receiving passes (paiza/gerege) for safe conduct and paying taxes (baj) acknowledging the Khan's authority. Over time, the Mongols increasingly adopted sedentary administrative practices, with administrators from conquered societies playing a role in integrating dominions and mitigating the harshness of nomadic predation. The growing pressure to sedentarize, particularly in areas distant from their steppe homeland, led to the gradual separation of Genghis Khan's descendants into individual lineage groups, each ruling their own territorial dominion and developing distinct identities and historical narratives.

The concept of the "yasa" (or yasaq), initially meaning "law" or "decree" concerning administrative regulations, evolved by the mid-thirteenth century to signify the "legal code of Genghis Khan." This claim to a sacred ancestral law served to unify the Mongols, reinforce their identity, and legitimize their rule over diverse sedentary populations. It provided an ideology that empowered them to retain their ethnic distinctiveness while imposing their law upon conquered subjects.

Military Organisation

Genghis Khan reorganized the Mongol people into a disciplined decimal military structure, eliminating old tribal divisions and distributing members into new units. This created a heterogeneous fighting force loyal to him, with units of 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s (tuman), often led by appointed captains (noyans).

New Hierarchy and Ulus System

A new hierarchy emerged, with status derived from loyalty to the Great Khan and his close followers (blood-brothers and bondsmen). Genghis Khan divided the empire into four administrative regions (ulus) governed by his sons, though these were initially fluid territories that evolved into fixed dominions.

Communication and Administration

A rapid courier system (yam) was established using outposts and a tax (qubcur) on herds for maintenance. This system, refined after Genghis Khan's death, allowed the Great Khans to monitor developments across the vast empire, facilitating governance and control.

Impact of Conquests

Mongol conquests resulted in widespread destruction, enslavement, and ecological devastation in conquered territories. Cities were destroyed, agricultural lands laid waste, and underground canals fell into disrepair, leading to desertification in some regions.

Pax Mongolica

Following the initial conquests, the Mongol empire ushered in a period of peace and stability known as the Pax Mongolica. This facilitated increased trade and communication along the Silk Route, with travelers receiving safe conduct passes (paiza/gerege) and paying taxes (baj), acknowledging Mongol authority.

Contradictions and Sedentarisation

Initially, there was pressure from some Mongol leaders to convert conquered lands to pasture. However, over time, particularly under rulers like Qubilai Khan and Ghazan Khan, the Mongols adopted more sedentary administrative practices, recognizing the importance of protecting peasantry and facilitating economic stability.

Mongol Administrators

The Mongols recruited civil administrators from conquered societies, such as Chinese secretaries and Persian officials, to help integrate dominions and manage complex economies. These administrators played a crucial role in blunting the harsher aspects of nomadic rule and advising Mongol leaders.

Separation of Lineages

The gradual separation of Genghis Khan's descendants into individual lineage groups (Toluyids, Jochids, Chaghataids) led to the formation of distinct dynasties ruling separate territorial dominions. This fragmentation also affected their connection to the memory and traditions of the wider Mongol family.

The Yasa Code

The "yasa" (or yasaq), originally a compilation of administrative regulations, evolved to signify Genghis Khan's "legal code." This code served to unify the Mongols, reinforce their identity, and legitimize their rule, acting as an empowering ideology that allowed them to retain their distinctiveness while imposing their law on subjects.

Conclusion: Situating Genghis Khan and the Mongols in World History

Genghis Khan is often remembered primarily as a conqueror and destroyer, responsible for immense loss of life. This perspective, shaped by the accounts of defeated sedentary societies, overshadows his achievements as a unifier of the Mongol people, a liberator from tribal wars and exploitation, and the architect of a vast transcontinental empire that revived trade and attracted travelers. The contrasting images highlight how dominant perspectives can erase others. The Mongol empire, embracing diverse peoples and faiths, was a unique pluralistic regime for its time. Mongol rulers, regardless of their personal beliefs (Shaman, Buddhist, Christian, or eventually Islam), never let faith dictate public policy, recruiting administrators and soldiers from all ethnic and religious groups. This multi-ethnic, multilingual, and multi-religious governance provided ideological models for later regimes. The memory of Genghis Khan remained a powerful force, influencing rulers like Timur, who, despite not being of Genghis Khanid descent, claimed kinship and adopted the title "son-in-law" (guregen) to legitimize his rule. Today, Mongolia, in reclaiming its national identity, venerates Genghis Khan as a great hero, symbolizing a connection to a glorious past and a beacon for the future.

Contrasting Images of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan is often viewed through contrasting lenses: as a destructive conqueror by his victims, and as a great leader, unifier, and bringer of prosperity by his own people. This highlights how historical narratives can be shaped by perspective.

Pluralistic Nature of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol empire was remarkably pluralistic, embracing diverse peoples, languages, and religions. Mongol rulers maintained a policy of religious tolerance and recruited administrators and soldiers from various ethnic and faith groups, creating a multi-ethnic, multilingual, and multi-religious regime.

The Mongol Legacy

The Mongols left a significant legacy on world history, including the creation of the largest contiguous empire, the revival of trade routes like the Silk Route (Pax Mongolica), and the establishment of administrative and communication systems. Their imperial model influenced later states, such as the Mughals in India.

Genghis Khan as a National Hero

In modern Mongolia, Genghis Khan is revered as a national hero, symbolizing a connection to a glorious past and playing a crucial role in forging national identity in the post-Soviet era.